Aaron R. Kuzel, D.O., M.B.A

Acute Coronary Syndrome

Acute Coronary Syndrome or ACS is any condition that results in ischemia of the coronary arteries resulting in diminished perfusion of the myocardial tissue. There is a spectrum of cardiac diseases that fall into the designation of ACS including: ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI), non-STEMI (NSTEMI), and unstable angina. This discussion will center around STEMIs as well as introduce some STEMI-equivalents.

Chest pain is the most common presenting symptoms for ACS. However, 20-30% of patients presenting with ACS will present with atypical symptoms. There are associated risk factors for ACS as noted in the table below.

Atypical Chest Pain	Risk Factors for ACS
Dyspnea Nausea Abdominal Pain Dizziness Back Pain Palpitations	Age > 50-years-old Male Gender Tobacco Use Cardiac Family History Hypertension Diabetes Hyperlipidemia

Work-Up and Management

Patients presenting with concern for ACS should receive prompt electrocardiography (ECG) as well as CBC, chest radiograph, electrolytes, serum troponin, and PT/PTT. The 2013 American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines recommend serial ECGs in the first hour if there are concerning symptoms and the first ECG is non-diagnostic. The serial ECGs are important as approximately 15-20% of STEMIs are diagnosed on the repeat ECG. Missing a STEMI or myocardial infarction is one of the most common causes of malpractice for the emergency physician. The table below demonstrates the most common causes of losses in malpractice cases related to the cause of chest pain.

Most Common Causes of Malpractice Losses Related to Chest pain

Failure to obtain ECG Misinterpretation of ECG Failure to record data from clinical evaluation

Definition of a STEMI

Fourth Universal Definition of STEMI

1 mm of ST elevation in any two contiguous leads except V2 and V3 In women: 1.5 mm elevation in V2 and V3 In men <40: 2.5 mm elevation in V2 and V3 In men 40 and older: 2mm elevation V2 and V3

ST-segment elevations are noted with the red arrows. Notice that there are ST-segment elevations in three contiguous leads: II, III, and AVF. There is usually reciprocal ST-segment depression in the opposite leads associated with ST-elevation myocardial infarctions. In this case of an Inferior Myocardial Infarction, there are reciprocal ST-segment depressions in the Septal and Lateral leads. This is denoted with blue arrows.

Wellens Syndrome

Wellens Syndrome refers to angina associated with T wave inversions in the left anterior descending coronary artery or LAD most notably in leads V2 and V3. Wellens Syndrome often presents in a pain-free state, but those patients who did not undergo reperfusion therapy with Wellens Syndrome noted on the ECG fared poorly with 75% developing an anterior wall myocardial infarction due to proximal LAD occlusion. Patients diagnosed with Wellens Syndrome should proceed urgently to cardiac catheterization.

There are two types of Wellens Syndrome:

Type A is a biphasic T wave in V2 and V3 occurring in 25% of cases and Type B are deep, symmetrically inverted T-waves in V2 and V3 occurring in 75% of cases. (Picture from WikEM). In the EKG below from Life in the Fast Lane ECG Library , there are inverted T-waves in V2 and V3 consistent with Type B Wellens Syndrome.

De Winter’s T Waves

De Winter’s T waves were first identified in 2008 and account for 2% of proximal LAD occlusions making it a STEMI-equivalent requiring emergent cardiac catheterization. De Winter’s T waves are tall, peaked T waves in the precordial leads (V1-V6) with ST-segment depression at the J-point. In most cases, ST-segment elevation will be seen in lead aVR, however this is not specific.

In this figure, there are obvious peaked T waves in leads V2, V3, and V4 denoted by the red arrows indicating De Winter’s T waves. There is some ST-segment elevation in aVR consistent with this finding. A patient presenting to the emergency department with this ECG finding should go immediately to cardiac catheterization for likely LAD occlusion.

Left Bundle Branch Block with Myocardial Infarction

Previously, a new Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) was considered a STEMI-equivalent, however, recent literature suggests that a new LBBB does not often demonstrate increased risk of acute myocardial infarction. However, in 1996, Dr. Sgarbossa published a study of acute myocardial infarction in the presence of a LBBB with three criteria. Although the Sgarbossa criteria is not very sensitive, the findings were very specific for the finding of acute myocardial infarction.

Dr. Amal Mattu, professor of emergency medicine from the University of Maryland, separates the Sgarbossa criteria into three subsections: Category A, B, and C.

Sgarbossa Criteria

A. Concordant ST Elevation >1 mm in ANY lead B. Concordant ST Depression > 1 mm in V1, V2, OR V3 C. Discordant ST Elevation > 5 mm (not as specific)

In Sgarbossa A, the QRS complex is deflected in the positive direction (up) and ST-segment elevation is also present or concordance. If this occurs in any lead in the presence of a LBBB this is a STEMI-equivalent and the patient should proceed to cardiac catheterization. In Sgarbossa B, the QRS complex is deflected in the negative direction as well as the ST-Segment depression a shown in the example above in V1. If the ST segment is depressed in V1, V2, or V3 and the QRS complex is deflected downward this is also a STEMI-equivalent indicating acute myocardial infarction in the presence of a LBBB. Finally, in Sgarbossa C if the ST segment elevation is greater than 5 mm (or 5 blocks), this may indicate a STEMI-equivalent, however this is not as specific as criteria A or B. That being said, the finding of Sgarbossa C should prompt the physician to consult Interventional Cardiology as well as consider other signs and symptoms of ischemia.

Sgarbossa A:

In the above example, there is ST elevation concordance with the QRS in the presence of a LBBB in lead aVL indicating a myocardial infarction. Notice, that this is the only lead with ST-elevation >1 mm, but the criteria indicates that concordant ST-segment elevation in any lead with a LBBB is an indication for PCI.

In this example, there is concordant ST-depression in lead V2 in the presence of a LBBB indicating the need for emergent cardiac catherization.

Conclusion:

There are many findings on ECG that could indicate either a STEMI, STEMI-equivalent, or the presence of ischemia. It is important to note that there are a multitude of other ischemic rhythms and this is a brief and limited introduction to ischemic ECGs. Ischemia can be present even in the absence of ECG changes or changes in troponin, so history and physical still remain the most important methods in physician diagnosis of myocardial infarction and ischemia.

For further reading for acute care ECGs, I recommend:

Electrocardiography in Emergency Medicine by Amal Mattu, Jeffrey Tabas, and Robert Barish

ECGs for the Emergency Physician Volume 1 and Volume 2 by Amal Mattu and William Brady

Electrocardiography in Emergency, Acute, and Critical Care by Amal Mattu Jeffrey Tabas and William Brady

References:

AHA ACA – NSTEMI ACS Guidelines 2014

de Winter R, et al. A new ECG sign of proximal LAD occlusion. NEJM. 2008; 359:2071–2073.

de Zwaan C, Bär FW, Wellens HJ. Characteristic electrocardiographic pattern indicating a critical stenosis high in left anterior descending coronary artery in patients admitted because of impending myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1982;103(4 Pt 2):730-736.

Hennings JR and Fesmire FM. A new electrocardiographic criteria for emergent reperfusion therapy. Am J Emerg Med. 2012; 30(6):994–1000.

Lee TH, Goldman L. Evaluation of the patient with acute chest pain. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 20;342(16):1187-95.

Maloy KR, Bhat R, Davis J, et al. Sgarbossa Criteria are highly specific for acute myocardial infarction with pacemakers. West J Emerg Med. 2010;11(4):354-357. (Retrospective cohort; 57 patients)

Pope JH, Aufderheide TP, Ruthazer R, Woolard RH, Feldman JA, Beshansky JR, Griffith JL, Selker HP. Missed diagnoses of acute cardiac ischemia in the emergency department. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 20;342(16):1163-70.

Sgarbossa EB, Pinski SL, Barbagelata MD, et al. Electrocardiographic Diagnosis of Evolving Acute Myocardial Infarction in the Presence of Left Bundle-Branch Block. NEJM. 1996;334(8)

Thygesen, K et al. Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction (2018). 2018 Nov 13;138(20):e618-e651.

Ünlüer EE et al. Red Flags in Electrocardiogram for Emergency Physicians: Remembering Wellens’ Syndrome and Upright T wave in V1. West J Emerg Med. 2012 May; 13(2): 160–162

As we know, point-of-care ultrasound has become an extremely useful tool in the ED, allowing providers to glean disposition-altering information from a quick and non-invasive bedside study.  On my ultrasound month, I helped out with a patient who presented with shortness of air for 2-3 days.  The patient was a fairly poor historian, but she reported progressive dyspnea on exertion for several weeks along with cough and orthopnea.  She had no formal diagnosis of COPD or CHF, but she had an extensive smoking history.  I was asked to perform a bedside echo to help narrow down the differentials. The images I obtained demonstrated some classic findings of right heart strain, and I felt like this would be a good opportunity to review some of them.

1. RV dilatation

In a normal heart, the LV should be fairly circular in the parasternal short axis view, and the RV will appear more crescent-shaped. Additionally, the walls surrounding the LV should move inward equally during systole. In the setting of elevated RV pressures, you can often see the interventricular septum bowing in towards the LV, creating a “D” shaped left ventricle, as seen in the clip above. Interestingly, there are different variants of the so-called “D sign”, helping to distinguish between right ventricular pressure vs. volume overload. In pressure overload, the RV presses on the septum during systole AND diastole. Conversely, in volume overload, the septal bowing is much more pronounced in diastole compared to systole. Our patient has a D-shaped LV throughout the cardiac cycle, suggesting RV pressure overload.

4. McConnell’s Sign

This finding refers to RV wall hypokinesis with apical sparing. As you can see in the video above, the apex of the RV appears to bounce up and down while the rest of the RV remains stationary. In the right clinical setting, McConnell’s sign is considered highly specific for acute pulmonary embolism. Disclaimer: this clip came from one of Dr. Nichols’s patients who was later found to have an extensive saddle embolus.

5. Lack of respiratory variation in the inferior vena cava

The normal IVC diameter is less than 1.7 cm and there is a 50% decrease in the diameter during inspiration when the RA pressure is normal (0-5 mmHg). When the inspiratory collapse is less than 50%, the RA pressure is usually between 10-15 mmHg. If there is no collapse with respirations in a spontaneously breathing patient, this suggests markedly increased RA pressure > 15 mmHg. This is usually best evaluated using M mode, measuring the diameter of the IVC during inspiration and comparing to its diameter during expiration. Our patient has an enlarged IVC with almost no collapsibility throughout the respiratory cycle.

Conclusion

If you identify any of these findings on a patient in the emergency department, you should consider common causes of RV failure and strain, such as PE, pulmonary hypertension, left heart failure, ARDS, severe tricuspid regurgitation, volume overload, etc. Our patient received a CT PE in the ED, which was negative. She was subsequently admitted to the cardiology service, where right heart catheterization found evidence of severe pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension. After a few days of monitoring, she was subsequently discharged back into the world with a prescription for diuretics and follow up in the pulmonary clinic.

Neck Trauma
Dr. McMurray

Zone 1: Clavicles to cricoid

• Highest mortality rate due to proximity to mediastinal structures

Zone 2: Cricoid cartilage to angle of mandible

• Most commonly injured
• Classically, zone II injuries undergo surgical exploration, zone I and III undergo further evaluation

Zone 3: angle of mandible to base of skull

Penetrating trauma:

• Has to penetrate the platysma which demarcates superficial from deep wounds
• Most common cause of immediate death is involvement of carotid artery

Hard signs of vascular injury:

• Hypotension
• Arterial bleeding
• Rapidly expanding hematoma
• Deficits (pulse/neuro)
• (bruit/thrill)

Hard signs of aerodigestive trauma:

Air bubbling, massive hemoptysis, respiratory distress

Soft signs

subQ air

dysphonia

dysphagia

Blunt Trauma

• Blunt vascular injury have up to 60% risk of stroke; if no operative intervention, consider ASA/Plavix/heparin etc

Denver Screening Criteria

• Used to screen for vertebral and carotid artery dissection and/or injury after blunt head/neck trauma
• CTA if 1 or more criteria present
• Reduces number of missed injuries to <5%

Strangulation

• Most common cause of death is neck vessel occlusion rather than airway obstruction
• Also can have laryngotracheal fx, C-spine injury
• If dyspnea, dysphonia, odynophagia, etc need laryngobronchoscopy
  
  

Ophthalmic Trauma
Dr. Nelson

Corneal abrasions:

• Richly innervated = very painful
• Short healing time 24-48 hours
• Common causes: mechanical trauma, foreign body, contact lenses, flash burns
• Clinical features: foreign body/gritty sensation, injection, tearing, relief with topical anesthetic, can also have photophobia and vision change
• Workup and diagnosis: eyelid exam with eversion, fluorescein exam looking for uptake
• Consider corneal ulceration in contact lens wearers
• Treatment: Removal of foreign body, PO/topical NSAIDs, abx (erythromycin in general population, fluoroquinolone drops in contact wearers for pseudomonal coverage)
• Ophtho follow up

Open globe:

• Full thickness disruption of sclera or cornea
• Clinical pictures: pain, decreased visual acuity, teardrop shaped pupil
• AVOID pressure on the eye = do NOT perform tonometry
• May have positive Seidel’s test on fluorescein exam
• CT orbit if concern for foreign body
• Management: urgent ophtho consult for repair, cover eye, elevate HOB, bed rest, tdap, abx
  • If no foreign body, IV fluoroquinolone
  • If foreign body, IV vanc+ceftaz

Eyelid Lacerations:

• Ophtho consult for repair:
  • Lid margin
  • Within 6-8mm of medial canthus
  • Lacrimal duct/sac
  • Inner surface of lid
  • If ptosis is present
  • Tarsal plate or levator palpebrae involvement
• Full thickness (through and through): high risk for ocular injury, eval for corneal lacs and globe rupture
• Partial thickness: most simple horizontal lacs can be repaired by ED physician, ends of sutures should be kept away from cornea to prevent further abrasion
• Lid margin lacerations: very small <1mm do not need repair and will heal spontaneously, if larger consult ophtho for repair
  
  

PEM Lecture-Abdominal Trauma:
Dr. Elmore

• Trauma is the most common cause of death in children from 1-18 years old in the US
• Blunt abd trauma accounts for more than 90% of childhood injuries
• It is the most unrecognized cause of fatal injuries
• Children are at greater risk due to immature skeleton and they have higher abd organ to body mass ratio
• Children are able to compensate in the face of significant blood loss
• Clinical prediction rule may rule out intraabdominal injury in blunt trauma
  • No sign of abd wall injury
  • No TTP
  • No evidence thoracic wall trauma
  • No abdominal pain
  • No decrased bowel sounds
  • No vomiting
• HDS but concern for intraabdominal injury if:
  • Hct<30
  • UA>5 RBCs
  • AST>200,ALT>125
  • Elevated lipase
  • Low systolic BP
  • Femur fx
• Spleen most commonly injured intraabdominal organ, liver second
• Pancreatic injury = classic “handlebar” injury from bike accident (also consider duodenal injury/hematoma with this mechanism)
• Hollow viscera injuries are rare, but most common causes are lap belt injuries, peds vs. auto, NAT (rapid acceleration/deceleration)
• As many as 50% of children with Chance fx have intra-abdominal injury such as duo perf, mesenteric disruption, transection of small bowel, panc injury, bladder rupture
• TEN-4 rule for NAT
  • Bruising on torso, ears, or neck of child >4 years old
  • Any bruising in an infant 4 months old or less
    
    

Small Group: Abdominal Trauma
Dr. Harmon

•   Indications for immediate lap in penetrating abdominal trauma:
  • Peritonitis (rigid abdominal wall, rebound tenderness)
  • Hemodynamic instability
  • Evisceration of abdominal contents
  • Hematemesis or gross blood per rectum
• Literature varies widely on sensitivity of CT for bowel/mesenteric injuries
• CT findings that may indicate bowel injury:
  • Stranding, bowel wall thickening, pneumoperitoneum
• Findings concerning for diaphragm injury:
  • Elevated/blurred L hemidiaphragm, bowel sounds in chest, gastric bubble/air fluid level in chest, mediastinal shift away from affected side
  • Gold standard for diagnosis of diaphragm injury is exploration in OR; cannot be ruled out by CT or CXR

 Traumacology
Dr. Senn, PharmD

• Triad of trauma: hypothermia, coagulopathy, acidosis
  
  
• TXA for trauma patients:
  • CRASH-2 trial compared TXA vs. placebo
    • In hospital mortality within 4 weeks of injury
    • Reduction in all cause mortality, greatest benefit SBP<75 and if given within 3 hours of initial injury
  • MATTERS trial 1g TXA given, greater impact on those requiring MTP
• Take-home points for TXA: consider using in adult trauma patients with severe hemorrhagic shock (SBP<90), ideally <3h from injury
  • Dosing: 1g over 10 min followed by 1g over 8h
• Trauma patients, hypocalcemia, and blood transfusion
  • Twice mortality for those with iCal <0.9
  • Calcium plays vital role in coagulopathy
  • Consider administration 1g CaCl or 3g Ca gluconate when giving 3-4 PRBCs/FFP

“Can you come see this patient in triage? Their knee is definitely dislocated.”
“Hey, doc, we’re bringing in this guy involved in an MVC, his knee was dislocated but it reduced on its own.”

It is important to be able to tell the difference between a true knee dislocation and a patellar dislocation.

Patellar Dislocation
A normally functioning patella is nestled within the trochlear groove of the distal femur. Patellar dislocations can occur either from a direct blow to the knee or from planting the ipsilateral foot and rapid change of direction/twisting, either of which can cause the patella to become displaced from the trochlear groove. Usually the patella becomes displaced laterally.

Reduction of the patellar dislocation involves extending the leg at the knee. Gentle pressure can be applied from the lateral aspect, directed medially, while extending. Post-reduction plainfilms should be obtained to evaluate for any associated fractures. If no fracture, the patient can be placed in a knee immobilizer for 7-10 days and follow up with orthopedics. Patellar dislocations are recurrent around 40% of the time.

Knee Dislocation
Knee dislocations are most commonly high mechanism injuries and have a high rate of neurovascular injury. They are rare, but it is difficult to know how many there truly are as up to 50% of them reduce spontaneously. The most common nerve injury is to the common peroneal nerve, with the popliteal artery being the most commonly affected artery. 60% of knee dislocations have associated fractures.

Treatment is emergent reduction and neurovascular examination. Presence of pulses does not exclude vascular injury. ABIs can be performed if pulses are normal. If ABI normal, may elect to observe the patient. If ABI abnormal, CTA indicated. If pulses are unequal, decreased or absent, you must ensure that the joint was reduced appropriately, and if still unable to locate pulses, immediate surgical intervention may be required.

Especially since both patellar dislocations and knee dislocations may spontaneously reduce, it is helpful to ask the patient and/or EMS about the initial appearance of the knee. A self-reduced patellar dislocation likely only requires plainfilms, while a self-reduced knee dislocation merits further evaluation for neurovascular injury.

Pelvic Trauma
Dr. Ferko

• Signs of pelvic trauma: hematuria, inability to void, abnormally positioned prostate
• Diagnosis:
• Hematuria, but severity of hematuria on UA does not equal severity of injury
  • Plainfilms to evaluate for fx near kidney/bladder/urethra
  • Retrograde urethrogram
  • Retrograde cystogram
• Retrograde urethrogram-when?
  • Male with external signs of trauma
  • Perform ideally before foley placement
  • Females-urology consult needed
  • Defer if CTA pelvis needed as it will interfere with contrast
• Retrograde urethrogram-how?
  • Patient supine
  • Obtain baseline KUB
  • 60cc syringe with 10% contrast, in last 10cc repeat KUB
  • For stretch injury/partial disruption, usually conservative management with catheter
• Retrograde cystogram
  • Fully fill bladder; inject until full and then 50cc further (usually around 400cc)

(from Journal of Urology)

Le Fort Fractures
Dr. Lehnig

• Complete or partial separation of mid face from skull
• Pterygoid involved in all
• Usually caused by blunt trauma
• LeFort I most common
• Higher velocity more likely to cause II/III
• LeFort I: palate-facial separation (think dentures)-mobility of the maxilla
• LeFort II: (nose and mouth) Nasal bridge, maxilla, lacrimal bones, orbital floor, and rim
• LeFort III: across nasal bridge, orbital walls, zygomatic arch (“floating face”)
• Endotracheal intubation preferred over nasal, prep for difficult airway
• LeFort II/III: CTA indicated
• Complications: Vascular injury (internal carotid as high as 7%), nerve injury, eye injury
• Treatment: definitive tx is surgical, ophtho consult, NES if CSF leak
• No specific guidelines on abx, many get augmentin

Prehospital Airway Management
Dr. Price

• Methods available? ET tube (oral or nasal), BVM (with OPA/NPA), supraglottic, needle cric (methods vary by state per state regulations)
• Variables to consider: patient (age, condition), provider (level, experience, training), setting (environment, distance)
• Study with 4 Key questions addressed
  • BVM vs SGA
  • BVM vs ETI
  • SGA vs ETI
  • Benefits and harms comparison based on pt type, technique, and devices
  • Methods: 1990-2020, >9000 abstracts, 99 studies
  • Results…inconclusive benefits, but harms: no difference in reported aspiration, airway trauma, regurgitation with any devices; BUT number of attempts less with SGA than ETI
  • Conclusion: current evidence does not favor more invasive airway approaches based on survival, neurologic function, ROSC, or successful airway insertion
• More research needed, may be more useful to study ventilation management as it may reveal clinically relevant differences

Oral Boards Prep
Dr. Shaw

Learning Points:

• In every patient, unless something requires emergent intervention, perform physical exam head to toe
• Remember to request repeat vitals
• Use a systematic approach
• Primary survey in trauma:
  • MARCH
    • Massive hemorrhage
    • Airway
    • Respiration
    • Circulation
    • Hypothermia/Head injury
  • Massive hemorrhage:
    • Tourniquet: place proximal to bleed, write time of placement
    • Twist tourniquet until you lose pulses in the extremity
    • 2 inches, 2 hours
    • 2 inches proximal to wound
    • On for up to 2 hours (can be left up to 6 hours, but can have neurovascular damage)
  • Airway:
    • Oxygenate
    • Ventilate (apnea)
    • Protect airway (secretions, mental status)
    • Clinical course (too agitated for CT)
  • Respiratory:
    • Rate, breath sounds, stridor, tracheal deviation, JVD
    • Needle decompression can be done either anteriorly at mid-clavicular line or laterally at anterior axillary
    • If needle decompression or chest tube for penetrating trauma, remember to place occlusive dressing over the initial injuries/wounds
  • Circulation:
    • BP, HR
    • 14G (250ml/min) and 16G (150ml/min) peripheral IVs have higher flow rate than Cordis (130ml/min)
  • Head Injury/Hypothermia:
    • GCS, pupillary exam, neuro exam
• Primary survey for every trauma patient, every time

Tumor Lysis Syndrome – Dr. Aher

typically occurs within days after chemotherapy.

Findings of: Hyperkalemia, Hyperuricemia, Hyperphosphatemia, HYPOcalcemia (2/2 phosphate binding Calcium

Dialysis indications: Potassium >6, Cr. >10, Uric Acid >10, symptomatic hypocalcemia, Phos >10, Volume overload

Methemoglobinemia – Dr. Norby-Hill

Can happen with dapsone overdose

Dissociation between SPaO2 and PaO2

Acquired cases from medications and environment, commonly dapsone, local anesthetics, nitrites, h202

50% is fatal

Features: refractory to supplemental o2, color of blood, cyanosis, respiratory depression

Tx: methylene blue (Not in G6PD or those on SSRIs as MB is MAOI), ASCORBIC ACID, EXCHANGE TRANSFUSION

Pediatric Surgical Emergencies – Dr. Robin Lund

Early blood tinged emesis – cracked nipples

Pyloric stenosis: M>F 4:1, 3 to 5 weeks, veracious eaters, NBNB projectile every feed, dehydration, malnutrition

Appy’s usually missed the younger they are

Intuss – 6 mo to 3 yo; ddx Meckels and hsp. 

Features: colicky severe, 20 min, emesis, sausage mass

NEC: sudden feeding intolerance, distention, tenderness, bilious vomiting, diarrhea, rectal bleeding

Malrotation: <1* vomiting, sick, abd distension, peritonitis.

Heme emergencies – Dr. McGee

1 single unit of donor platelets raises plts by 30k

Transfusion indications: <10k (20k if febrile or septic), <50k active bleeding, <100k CNS bleeding or neuraxial surgery

-vwb dz tx for minor bleeding is ddavp

Post transfusion purpura: alloantigen on transfused plts: t penia, purport, clinically significant bleeding. Tx IVIG

Don’t forget about HIIT if recent inpatient stint

MAHAs – non immune HA.

TMAs: microvascular hemolysis; tap, has, drug, complement, pregnancy, htn emergency

High Sensitivity Troponin – Dr. Adam Ross

6 or above reported. Anything less than 20 nl in males; <15 normal in females

>88 MI

15 or greater (change in either direction) increase is clinically significant (2 hours)

TBD if there will be poc trop in R9

Single trop undetectable with >3 hours of symptoms

Hemophilia Lecture

A is Factor VIII deficiency

B is Factor IX

Both are 

VWD: VWf “chaperones” Factor VIII and facilitates its efficacy

Emicizumab: bispecific mab. Helps factor 9 and 10 work. Subcutaneous injection prophylactically.

Meds ending in -ate are for VIII deficiency.

Transfusion Reaction – Dr. Bayers

1. TRALI vs TACO
   1. TRALI more often febrile, more often low BP
   2. TACO very consistent with CHF exacerbation, likely preceding CHF.
2. Other Transfusion Reactions on the Differential
   1. Anaphylaxis
   2. Sepsis – Transfusion Transmitted
   3. Urticaria
   4. FNHTR
   5. AHTR – usually secondary to ABO incompatibility: send Coombs, recheck T&S, DIC, Haptoglobin

If Fever and no other symptoms: stop transfusion, give antipyretic, wait 30 minutes and continue transfusion

Research Overview – Dr. Huecker

Think Do Write

Be passionate

Research Louisville September

ACEP October

CORD March

AAEM April

SAEM May

IRB submission typically takes one month

Common IRB approved research:

-human subjects research

-quality improvement

-program evaluation

Utilize Jacob

-plan stats, charts, graphs, that you want back in a timely fashion. Give him time to complete

Tuberculosis – Dr. Matthew Keller

Most common symptom is cough

8 weeks for exposure testing

2-4 weeks of treatment of active TB before non-infectious

Active TB:

Symptomatic +ppd, +qfg, abnormal cxr, +sputum or culture -> RIPE

Latent TB Isoniazid x9 months

Don’t treat CAP with quinolone (especially) if TB is on ddx

Case Follow Up: Hyperviscosity syndrome – Dr. Slaven

Hyperviscosity syndrome

Features: fever, fatigue, headache, blurred vision, dyspnea, chest pain. polycythemia, thrombocytosis.

Mgt: Give IV fluids Consider phlebotomy.

Causes of fever other than obvious: Infection/Iatrogenic, Mets, AI, Drugs, Endocrine, Clots. (IMADEClots)

Case Follow Up: Febrile Neutropenia – Dr. Ferko

ANC <500 + fever

More than 80% hematologic malignancies. Often currently receiving chemo

Blunted immune response; not necessarily SIRS

COPD places into high risk category.

To be low risk category, everything needs to look good, including transportation and likelihood to follow up

Consider using MASCC Risk score

Admit: Cover pseudomonas, not necessary to start MRSA coverage unless:

Pneumonia

Not HDS

If MRSA suspected

Catheter or skin and soft tissue infection

PECARN Pediatric Head Injury/Trauma Algorithm

Presenter: Dr. Tara Kopp, Pediatric EM

• SNOUT – sensitivity = rule out
• SPIN – specificity = rule in
• PECARN = cohort of 20+ large academic institutions that combine to produce academic research studies
• ciTBI = clinically important traumatic brain injury
• Want to have high sensitivity = screening test = rule out ciTBI and need for CT scan

PECARN Criteria:

• Age: <2 yo or >2 yo
• GCS ≤14 or signs of basilar skull fracture or signs of AMS
  • AMS = Agitation, somnolence, repetitive questioning, or slow response to verbal communication
• History of LOC or history of vomiting or severe headache or severe mechanism of injury
  • Small children = severe fall > 3 ft
  • Older children = severe fall > 5ft

Observation vs CT scan

• Observation usually 4-6 hours; may take into account time from injury
• Children with no PECARN criteria ciTBI predictors = lots of head CTs which could be avoided
• Recommend repeat physical exam prior to discharge if observation

Conclusion:

• Severe injury mechanism
  • Children with isolated severe injury mechanism are at low risk of ciTBI, and many do not require imaging.
• Scalp hematoma
  • Clinicians should use patient age, scalp hematoma location and size, and injury mechanism to determine need for imaging in otherwise asymptomatic children.
• VP shunt
  • Children with VP shunts had higher CT use but similar rates of ciTBI compared with children w/o VP shunts. (limited sample size)

Peritonsillar abscess

Presenter: Dr. Brett Nelson

• Most common deep space infection of head and neck
• Predisposed by previous/recurrent tonsilitis or pharyngitis

Symptoms:

• Odynophagia, drooling, voice change

Evaluation:

• Edematous tonsil, pillars, or soft palate
• Uvula deviation
• Ultrasound
  • Intraoral US with endocavitary probe
  • Submandibular US with linear probe
• CT head/neck w/ contrast

Treatment:

• Needle aspiration – start near superior tonsillar pole, cut needle guard to protect
• Incision and drainage – cut scalpel guard to protect
• Antibiotics alone – Augmentin +/- Clindamycin
• “Quinsy Tonsillectomy” – performed by ENT in severe cases of airway obstruction

Disposition: Usually discharge with ENT follow-up

Sialolithiasis and Suppurative Parotitis

Presenter: Dr. Kyle Stucker

Sialolithiasis:

• Calcium carbonate or phosphate stones of salivary gland in stagnant duct
• Mechanism: Duct stasis, bacterial migrations alter salivary gland pH, altered duct electrolyte concentrations
• 80% occur in submandibular gland
• Usually 5mm; >10-15 mm = “megalith”

Diagnosis:

• Facial swelling, pain, discomfort
• Clinical – stone may be palpated
• CT scan
• Ultrasound

Treatment:

• <5 mm stone
  • Conservative
  • Outpatient therapy and analgesia
  • Gland massage
  • Sialogogues, such as lemon drops
  • Antibiotics if concern for infection
  • ENT referral
• > 5mm
  • Consider ENT consult

Suppurative Parotitis

• Duct infection or infected stone
• Evaluated with CT or US
• Collect cultures if visible purulent discharge

Treatment:

• Augmentin or clindamycin if penicillin allergy
• Admit for IV abx (Unasyn) if concern for sepsis, signs of trismus or airway compromise

Small Group Lecture: ENT Foreign Bodies

Present: Dr. Taylor Strohmaier

Ear foreign body:

• Lidocaine, mineral oil, hydrogen peroxide – anesthesia and kill insect

Removal techniques:

• Irrigation – may utilize IV catheter; contraindicated in TM perforation and button battery
• Forceps – flat or alligator, right angle tool, currette (lighted if available)
• Dermabond + Q-tip – allow glue to become tacky
• Snake pediatric NG tube/foley past to attempt to drag out

Consider otic drops if TM perforation or significant EAC trauma

• Cipro-dex drops
• Dry ear precautions

Consult ENT:

• Unable to remove FB
• Patient requires sedation

Eye foreign body:

Eye exam: EOM, pupils, visual acuity, fluorescein stain, Woods lamp, slit-lamp exam, tonometry, ultrasound, CT scan (may be helpful if concern for metallic FB)

Removal techniques: irrigation, moist Q-tip or cotton swab, 18 g needle on slit-lamp exam, eye burr

Complication of metallic FB: rust ring or corneal perforation (open globe)

• Rust rings can form within only a few hours
• Update Tdap
• Consult ophthalmology

Antibiotic:

• Moxifloxacin (Vigamox), ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin drops
  • Require pseudomonal coverage for contact len wearers
• Erythromycin ointment

Consult ophthalmology if unable to remove FB, visual deficit, concern for open globe, or rust ring

Follow-up with optho – 24-48 hrs

Nasal Foreign Body:

Removal Techniques:

• Mother’s Kiss Technique
• Suctioning
• Forceps with nasal speculum
• Dermabond on Q-tip
• Foley catheter, Fogarty catheter or Katz extractor

Complications:

• Soft tissue injury – epistaxis, septal injury/hematoma, nasopharyngeal trauma
• Barotrauma
• Displacement of FB into airway

Disposition:

• Discharge home following FB removal in uncomplicated cases
• Antibiotics if concern for infection
• ENT consult if unable to remove FB or persistent epistaxis

Here are four papers on ovarian torsion. If you suspect torsion clinically, do NOT be reassured by normal flow on USN. Only the last paper (12 years old) showed a high sensitivity of ultrasound doppler flow for torsion. The other findings matter!

Diagnostic Efficacy of Sonography for Diagnosis of Ovarian Torsion (2014)

323 subjects. The ultrasound correctly diagnosed 72.1% of ovarian torsion and missed 27.9% of them (false negatives)

Ovarian torsion: Case-control study comparing the sensitivity and specificity of ultrasonography and computed tomography for diagnosis in the emergency department (2014)

20 cases, 20 controls. Pelvic US for ovarian torsion was 80.0% sensitive (95% CI, 58.4-91.9%) and 95.0% specific (95% CI, 76.4-99.1%) for reader 1, while 80.0% sensitive (95% CI, 58.4-91.9%) and 85.0% specific (95% CI, 64.0-95.0%) for reader 2.

Diagnosis of Ovarian Torsion: Is It Time to Forget About Doppler? (2018)

55 cases of surgically proven torsion, 48 controls. Sixty-one percent of right ovarian torsion case and 27% of left ovarian torsion cases had normal Doppler flow. Presence of ovarian cysts was significantly associated with torsion. Sensitivity of ultrasound was 70% and specificity was 87%.

Doppler studies of the ovarian venous blood flow in the diagnosis of adnexal torsion (2009)

One hundred and ninety-nine patients presented with adnexal mass and intermittent lower abdominal pain. Sensitivity and specificity of tissue edema, absence of intra-ovarian vascularity, absence of arterial flow, and absence or abnormal venous flow in the diagnosis of adnexal torsion were: 21% and 100%, 52% and 91%, 76% and 99%, and 100% and 97%, respectively. All patients with adnexal torsion had absent flow or abnormal flow pattern in the ovarian vein. In 13 patients, the only abnormality was absent or abnormal ovarian venous flow with normal gray-scale US appearance and normal arterial blood flow. Of these 13 patients, 8 (62%) had adnexal torsion or subtorsion.

TL;DR

1. Ovarian Torsion is a clinical diagnosis. Ultrasound is NOT 100% sensitive.

2. Read the USN report, Just like a cardiac cath*, normal must really mean normal. If you can’t visualize one ovary, or have normal ovarian flow but a large cyst, or have edema, etc, that is NOT a normal pelvic ultrasound.

* A cath report that has 50% blockage in 2 vessels is not “normal” or “clean”! Caths with absence of a lesion that requires PCI (stent) can still have abnormalities that are very important. Remember, the 50% coronary plaques are the most likely to be unstable and rupture.

Pharmacy Lecture

Presenter: Nicholas Cottrell, Pharm.D

Intranasal Meds:

Adv:

• Ease of use
• Rapidly effective
• Relatively safe

Metabolism:

• Metabolized by liver
• Nasal meds bypass liver metabolism
• Optimizing drug intranasal:
  • 0.2-0.3 ml, Never more than 1 mlà will cause post nasal drip
  • Remove blood and mucous from the nose
  • Use both nostrils
  • Use atomized delivery system

Go to Treatment for Headache:

• Sphenopalatine Ganglion Nerve Block:
  • Associated with trigeminal nerve
  • Seen in migraine and cluster HA
  • How to perform Sphenopalatine Ganglion Nerve Block
    • 10 cm cotton tip applicator
    • Anesthetic 1% lido
    • 5 cc syringe with large bore needle to draw up anesthetic

Angioedema:

• Hereditary
  • Recurrent attacks
  • C1 esterase inhibitor deficiency
  • Allergic reaction meds are ineffective
• Acquired Angioedema
  • Rare
• Treatment:
  • Green Zone: Minimal edema
    • Observation
  • Yellow: Moderate
    • Watch, meds
  • Red Zone: Immediate need for intubation
    • Stridor
    • Dyspnea
    • Progressive deterioration

Intubations Hazards:

• Airway manipulation may worsen swelling
• Laryngeal edema will preclude use of LMA

TXA:

• TXA can work on bradykinin mediated angioedema
• 1 g IV push over 10 minutes, q4h PRN
  • ADE: Thrombosis
• C1 esterase deficiency angioedema:
  • 2 units of FFP initially, 2 units PRN
  • Other meds:
    • Icatibant and Ecallentide
      • Take longer to work
      • Not always available
      • EXPENSIVE

Management of Obligate Neck Breathers

Presenter: Dr. Shawn Jones, Otolaryngology PGY-2

• Tracheostomy:
  • Exteriorizes trachea to skin of neck for permanent gas exchange:
    • Why:
      • Severe OSA
      • Head and neck cancers or masses
      • Subglottic stenosis
      • Ludwig’s angina
      • Paralysis of vocal cords
      • Prolonged ventilator support
    • Benefits:
      • Reducing need for sedation
      • Improve patient comfort
      • Reduce ventilator pneumonia
    • Risks:
      • Infections
      • Bleeding
      • Fistula
      • Granulation tissue and scarring
      • Tracheal occlusion:
        • Mucus plugging
        • Accidental decannulation

Tracheostomy and Respiratory Distress:

1. Remove trach cap

2. Attempt to pass suction catheter to assess patency

3. Provide supplemental O2 (trach collar, BiPAP, bagging)

4. Replace uncuff trach tube with cuffed trach tube or cuffed ET Tube to provide PPV

Image Source: https://aneskey.com/what-is-a-tracheostomy-what-is-a-laryngectomy/

Laryngectomy

• Larynx is surgically removed
• Upper airway no longer connects to trachea
• Trachea is fixed to skin to create permanent stoma

Indication:

• Cancer of head and neck
• Chronic aspiration

TEP = transesophageal prothesis – may be placed after laryngectomy to allow for speech

Image Source: https://sinaiem.org/dont-fear-the-tracheostomy/

Laryngectomy and respiratory distress:

• Provide supplemental O2: trach-collar, BiPAP, bagging
• Must place cuffed ET tube to provide PPV (lary tubes are uncuffed)

Image source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/117586240255365772/

Pediatric Heme/Onc Emergencies

Dr. Julie Klensch, Pediatric EM Fellow

Hemorrhagic Disease of Newborn

• Vit K deficiency causes severe bleeding
• Onset usually during 1^st week of life
• ICH, intrathoracic or intracranial bleeding, oozing from mucous membranes

Treatment:

• Vit K and FFP
• Transfuse for Hgb<7
• pRBC 10-15 ml/kg given over 2-4 hrs
• 10 ml/kg should increase Hgb by ~2

Hemolytic anemia

• Pallor, jaundice, dark urine, fatigue, dizziness
• Intrinsic vs extrinsic
• Evaluation: CBC, CMP, LDH, haptoglobin, direct/indirect bilirubin , Comb’s test in newborns

Sickle Cell disease

• Vascular occlusion
• Infection
• End organ damage
• Tx: analgesia and hydration
• Salmonella + sick cell patient = osteomyelitis

Dactylitis

• Vaso-occlusive crises of hands and feet; often initial presenting sign of SS disease

Splenic Sequestration

• Splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, LUQ pain

Acute chest syndrome

• Infiltrate of CXR, chest pain, hypoxia
• Tx: ceftriaxone and azithromycin, IVFs, consider pRBC transfusion if respiratory support required

Stroke

• Management: CT, MRI, exchange transfusion

Avascular necrosis:

• Leg/hip pain, inability to bear weight
• Tx: analgesia and orthopedics consult

Infection

• Hyposplenia leaves patient at risk from encapsulated organism, specifically S. Pneumoniae
• Children < 5yo should be on prophylactic penicillin.

Thrombocytopenia

• Plt transfusion 5-10 ml/kg, rate dependent on urgency
• 1 U increase 5,000-10,000

Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP)

• Well appearing child, unexplained petechiae and bruising, isolated thrombocytopenia following viral infection
• Tx: IVIG, don’t transfuse plt

Neutropenia

• ANC<1500, severe ANC<500
• Fever + Neutropenia = septic work-up with administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics

Tumor Lysis Syndrome

• Initiation of chemotherapy; most common in leukemia or lymphoma (high cell turnover)
• Hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, and elevated uric acid
• Tx: Allopurinol and hydration, Rasburicase for severe cases but expensive

Lateral Canthotomy – Procedure SIM

Presenter: Dr. Michael Carter and Dr. Ross Sizemore

Indication for lateral canthotomy: Ocular compartment Syndrome

• Most commonly due to blunt trauma
  • Retrobulbar hematoma/hemorrhage
  • Infection, orbital emphysema, FB (less common)
• Eye Pain, proptosis, difficulty open eyelids, pain/difficulty with EOM
• Perform pupillary exam, visual acuity, and tonometry (IOP>40)
• Order CT but do not delay treatment
• Irreversible vision loss may occur within 60-100 min if not treated

Globe rupture: contraindication to the procedure

Medical management:

• Elevate HOB, analgesia, and BP control, antiemetics
• IV acetazolamide
• Timolol eye drops
• IV mannitol

Pitfalls:

• Lack of early recognition and ophthalmology consultation
• Iatrogenic injury
• Incomplete resolution

Equipment:

• Chlorhexadine
• Lidocaine w/ epi
• Needle and syringe for lidocaine injection
• Straight mosquito hemostat
• Iris scissors
• Forceps

Procedure Tips:

• Angle sharps away from eye during procedure
• Recheck IOP after procedure
• Be aware of lacrimal gland if cutting superior tendon.

Image Source: https://www.tamingthesru.com/blog/annals-of-b-pod/ocular-emergency

Ceasing Resuscitation in the Pre-Hospital Setting

Presenter: Dr. Raymond Orthober

Termination of out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA)

• Non-traumatic patients
• 0.6% survival rate in those with ROSC >25 min CPR
• In most situations, ACLS initial resuscitation on scene is equivalent to ACLS offered in-hospital
• Goal: Gain ROSC and obtain good neurological outcome

Load-and-Go vs Stay-and-Play

• Trauma = Load-and-Go
• Medical = Stay-and-Play

Withholding resuscitation efforts: Evaluate life status

• Cold and stiff in warm environment
• Rigor Mortis
• Lividity
• Obvious mortal wounds
• Obvious signs of decomposition
• Valid DNR

Determination of death:

• Pupils fixed and dilated
• Apnea
• Pulseless
• Asystole in 2 leads

Exceptions to cease resuscitation in the field: cold water drowning, electrical injury, hypothermia

CPR underway & request to cease resuscitation:

• No bystander CPR
• No witnessed arrest
• No response after >6 min high quality CPR
• No shockable rhythm
• Asystole in 2 leads
• No ROSC at anytime
• 20-25 min CPR prior to request to cease resuscitation

EtCO2

• EtCO2 > 20 is a sign of life
• EtCO2 < 10 may be used to support termination of CPR
• Technical difficulties may lead to inaccurate EtCO2
• Use as complementary value in bigger picture of patient

Radio call – Questions to ask

1. Valid DNR or MOST form?
2. Witnessed arrest and/or bystander CPR?
3. Definitive airway? iGel, LMA, ETT
4. Any shocks delivered?
5. ROSC at any point?
6. Asystole at time of call?
7. 20-25 min CPR?
8. EtCO2<10

Termination of Resuscitation in Trauma

• Trauma = Load-and-Go
• All trauma patients should be transported except in rare circumstance of obvious mortal wound, no signs of life, and prolonged downtime

Thromboelastography (TEG)

Presenter: Dr. Isaac Shaw

Utilize to guide your blood product resuscitation.

Trauma patients or severe UGI bleed presenting in hemorrhagic shock and requiring MTP in the ED.

Image Source: https://www.tamingthesru.com/blog/grand-rounds/teg

• Prolonged R-time –> administer FFP
• Decreased Alpha angle –> administer cryoprecipitate
• Decreased MA –> administer platelets
• Increased LY30 –> administer TXA

TEG turn-around time: Final result in ~30 minutes

Room 9 computer has TEG software – can begin to see graph form in 5-10 minutes.

Oral Boards Case

Presenter: Dr. Isaac Shaw

28 year-old male presents for hemoptysis in the setting of recent tracheostomy placement.

Differential diagnosis for bleeding tracheostomy site:

• Tracheoinnominate fistula
• Tracheal irritation
• Bacterial Tracheitis
• Surgical site bleeding or infection
• Pulmonary Embolism
• Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage

Sentinel bleed: small bleed prior to large volume hemorrhage due to tracheoinominate fistula formation

It takes ~1 week for tracheostomy tract to mature

Image Source: http://emdaily.cooperhealth.org/content/emconf-tracheoinnominate-fistula

Management:

1. Hyperinflate tracheostomy cuff (~40-50cc)

2. Consider replacing trach with standard ET tube and then hyperinflate ET tube cuff (may help if bleed is further down)

3. Insert fingers in trach site and apply pressure anteriorly against back of sternum

Image Source: Ailawadi G. Technique for managing Tracheo-innominate artery fistula. Operative Techniques in Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2009;14(1):66-72. doi:10.1053/j.optechstcvs.2009.02.003

Image Source: Ailawadi G. Technique for managing Tracheo-innominate artery fistula. Operative Techniques in Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 2009;14(1):66-72. doi:10.1053/j.optechstcvs.2009.02.003

Lighting Lectures:

Presenter: Dr. Jordan Martinez and Dr. Adam Lehnig

Retropharyngeal Abscess

• Age: 2-4 years old most common
• Often presents after an infection, usually URI
• May be precipitated by trauma, dental procedure, intubation, etc
• Polymicrobial infection

Management:

• Evaluate for airway compromise –> ABCs
• Obtain CT soft tissue neck W (historically lateral neck X-ray was used)
• Antibiotics: IV Unasyn or IV Clindamycin
• Consult: ENT

Image Source: https://www.slideserve.com/derora/deep-neck-infections

Image Source: https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Retropharyngeal_abscess

Ludwig’s Angina:

• Bilateral infection of submandibular space
• Dental source = most common cause
• “Hardening of floor of mouth”
• Tongue swelling and elevation; neck swelling

Management:

• Evaluate for signs of respiratory distress: drooling, dyspnea, dysphonia, dysphagia
• Fiberoptic nasal intubation if necessary
• Consider CT imaging
• Antibiotics: IV Unasyn – first line
• Polymicrobial infection – consider broad spectrum if known MRSA or pseudomonal exposure
• ENT consult

Room 9 Follow-Up:

Presenter: Dr. Dylan Nichols

Two patient cases discussed. Both patients with bradycardia in the setting of acute renal failure and severe hyperkalemia. Both patients demonstrated transient bradycardia which eventually resolved.

BRASH Syndrome:

• Bradycardia
• Renal Failure
• AV blockade
• Shock
• Hyperkalemia

Consider in: Elderly patients with cardiac disease on BB/CCB

Trigger: hypovolemia or AKI

Image Source: https://litfl.com/brash-syndrome/

Epistaxis

Presenter: Dr. Matthew Eisenstat

Anterior Bleed (90%): comes from Kiesselbach’s plexus

Posterior Bleed: (10%): higher concern severe bleeding or arterial bleed (sphenopalentine artery)

May use nasal speculum for better visualization.

Image Source: https://www.aafp.org/afp/2018/0815/p240.html

Management:

1. Direct pressure (consider taping together tongue depressors)
2. Oxymetazoline (Afrin) spray – have patient blow nose to remove clots prior to application
   1. May also consider lidocaine w/ epinephrine or phenylephrine spray
3. Chemical cauterization with silver nitrate stick – do not apply bilaterally due to decrease flow to nasal septum
4. TXA soaked gauze/pledget or Surgicel gauze
5. Traditional nasal packing with Vaseline gauze
6. Nasal Tampon Device (Merocel) – expands when exposed with liquid, tape string to patient’s face
7. Nasal balloon device (Rhino-Rockets) – inflatable device applies direct pressure

Image Source: https://www.capesmedical.co.nz/medical-products/woundcare/epistaxis-control/epistaxis-rapid-rhino-device-unilateral-airway

Disposition:

• Admit posterior bleeds and severe anterior bleeds requiring nasal packing
• Consider admission in patients with multiple comorbidities or on anti-coagulation
• No definitive recommendation on blood pressure management in epistaxis
• If discharging recommend removal of nasal packing in 48-72 hours to avoid development of toxic shock syndrome

Nasal fracture:

• No imaging required in isolated injury
• Immediate reduction or reduction at follow up in:
  • Children: 2-4 days
  • Adult 6-10 days
• Nasal septal hematoma: requires immediate drainage followed by bilateral nasal packing and ENT follow-up within 24 hours
• Children + epistaxis: evaluate for foreign body

Ophthalmology for the ED Provider

Presenter: Dr. Sanket Shah, Ophthalmology PGY-4

Image Source: https://www.allaboutvision.com/resources/anatomy.htm

Eyelid lacerations

• Laceration involving eyelid border = ophthalmology consult
• Laceration to medial canthus = concern for disruption of lacrimal duct = ophthalmology consult

Visual acuity

• Check each eye individually
• With glasses on or utilize pin hole in patient >40 y/o
• Counting fingers, hand motion, light perception if patient unable to read eye chart

Pupillary exam

• Size, shape, response to light

IOP

• Utilize anesthetic drops and Tonopen
• Normal is up to ~21 mmHg; in the ED up to 30 mmHg is reasonable
• Ensure no pressure on the eye from hands; patient no holding their breath during exam

Subconjunctival hemorrhage

• may follow-up in clinic

Subconjunctival hemorrhage + chemosis

• depends on severity and percent of chemosis; consider ophthalmology consult in severe cases

Corneal abrasion

• Evert eyelids and exam – utilize cotton tip
• Evaluate with fluorescein staining
• Small, normal vision
  • erythromycin ointment QID 4-5 days
• In setting of wood, sticks, fingernail, contacts
  • moxifloxacin eye drops
  • avoid ciprofloxacin drops due eye toxicity
• Large, central, concern for corneal ulcer:
  • Immediate ophthalmology consult
  • Antibiotic drops

*Never discharge patients with anesthetic eye drops (tetracaine or proparacaine); Toradol drops are a safe option

Foreign body removal

1. damp cotton swab
2. 18g needle
3. Eye burr – recommend ophthalmology consult prior to trying this

Chemical burns

• Check pH prior to application of any drops
• Irrigate copiously and recheck pH
• Consider Morgan Lens

Corneal Ulcer

Staining corneal ulcer = Ophthalmology emergency and immediate consult

Traumatic Iritis

• Blunt trauma
• Visual deficit = ophthalmology consult
• Tx: dilating drops (cyclopentolate); Ophthalmology may start steroids

Hyphema

• >50% consider ophthalmology consult

• Consult ophthalmology in all sickle cell patients

Orbital Fracture

• Ophthalmology requests full eye exam prior to consult
• Entrapment higher concern in pediatric population

Retrobulbar hemorrhage

• Ophthalmology Emergency – Immediate consult
• Check IOP
• Consider lateral canthotomy if increased IOP, decreased visual acuity, or proptosis present

Image Source: https://www.tamingthesru.com/blog/annals-of-b-pod/ocular-emergency

Ruptured Globe

• Ophthalmology Emergency – Immediate consult
• Apply eye shield
• Obtain CT Orbits WO
• Update Tdap
• Broad Spectrum Antibiotics: Prefer Vancomycin and Levaquin

Painful Vision Loss:

• Acute angle closure glaucoma
  • IOP lowering drops

Image Source: https://www.tamingthesru.com/blog/annals-of-b-pod/b-pod-case/angle-closure-glaucoma

• Optic neuritis
  • MRI Brain/Orbit W&WO
  • Neurology consult
• Uveitis
• Endophthalmitis
• Corneal hydrops

Painless Vison Loss:

• Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA)
• Central Retinal Artery Occlusion (CRAO)
• Central Retinal Vein Occlusion (CRVO)
• Retinal Detachment
  • Utilize ultrasound for evaluation

Image Source: https://jetem.org/retinal_detachment/

• Vitreous Hemorrhage
• Amaurosis Fugax

Chronic Eye Disease:

• Cataracts
• Open angle glaucoma
• Dry eye
• Diabetic retinopathy
• Macular degeneration

US for Shoulder Dislocation and Reduction

Complications of the Foot by Dr. Ford

• Osteomyelitis
  • High risk groups: Substance abusers, Diabetics, open fractures
  • Bone biopsy is gold standard for diagnosis
  • Get a deep culture (with a piece of tissue or bone) before initiating abx
  • Bone mineral loss of 30% is required for changes to be visible on X-ray
• Charcot neuroarthropathy
  • Progressive noninfectious condition
  • 2 etiologies: neurovascular and neurotraumatic (microfractures)
    • Neurovascular: massive amounts of blood flow “water log” the bones. Caused by autonomic dysfunction
  • Initial phases can look like cellulitis but erythema is DEPENDENT (resolves with 10min of elevation)
  • Consolidation (chronic) phase = rocker bottom foot. Mid foot bony deformity
  • DISCHARGE if no WBC or open wound. Normal to have elevated ESR, CRP, temperature.
  • ADMIT if open wound present to r/o infection with biopsy
  • Treatment is offloading with total-contact cast
• Gout
  • Gouty arthritis can break down bone and mimic osteo. Differentiate with history.
  • Uric acid level will be elevated

Lightning Lectures

Gout

• Monosodium urate crystal deposition
• Elevated uric acid levels
• Monoarthritis often involving first MTP or knee joint
• US can demonstrate “double contour sign”
• Treatment options: NSAIDs, Prednisone, Colchicine

Septic Arthritis

• <35yo: N gonorrhea; >35yo: S. aureus
• Pain with ROM
• Arthrocentesis with synovial fluid analysis is diagnostic

Pharmacology in Open Fractures and Reductions

• In antibiotic selection in open fractures consider Gustilo Classification and environmental exposures.
• Grade I & II fractures: gram positive coverage w/ Cefazolin
• Grade III fracture: gram positive and negative coverage w/ cefazoline and gentamicin